Who invented the first submarine: A historical journey beneath the waves

The question of who invented the first submarine doesn’t have a simple answer. Unlike many inventions attributed to a single genius moment, the submarine evolved through centuries of experimentation, failure, and gradual refinement. From leather-covered wooden frames to nuclear-powered vessels, the story of underwater navigation reflects humanity’s persistent desire to conquer the depths.

The earliest attempts at submersible craft date back further than most people realize. While we often think of submarines as relatively modern military technology, inventors have been trying to crack the code of underwater travel since the late 1500s. Each breakthrough built upon previous attempts, creating a fascinating chain of innovation that spans continents and centuries.

Early pioneers and their ambitious designs

William Bourne’s theoretical breakthrough

In 1578, an English mathematician named William Bourne published detailed plans for an underwater vessel in his work “Inventions or Devises.” Bourne never actually built his design, but his conceptual framework was remarkably sophisticated for the era. He proposed a completely enclosed boat with a waterproof leather covering stretched over a wooden frame. The genius of his design lay in the adjustable volume system: hand vises would contract or expand the sides, changing the vessel’s displacement and allowing it to sink or rise.

Bourne understood the fundamental principle that would govern all future submarines. By altering the relationship between the craft’s volume and weight, you could control buoyancy. It’s the same concept modern submarines use with ballast tanks, though executed with 16th-century technology.

Cornelis Drebbel: From theory to reality

The first submarine that actually worked and carried passengers was built between 1620 and 1624 by Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutch inventor working in England. Drebbel’s creation was tested in the River Thames, successfully completing multiple underwater journeys at depths of 12 to 15 feet. This wasn’t just a proof of concept, it was a functioning vehicle that could transport up to 12 rowers beneath the surface.

Drebbel’s submarine used a greased leather covering over a wooden frame, similar to Bourne’s theoretical design. However, Drebbel solved practical problems that existed only on paper for his predecessor. He incorporated breathing tubes with floats to maintain air supply and used a bladder system for basic depth control. King James I himself reportedly took a ride in one of Drebbel’s vessels, making him perhaps history’s first submarine passenger.

What’s particularly remarkable is that Drebbel apparently understood something about air replenishment. Historical accounts suggest he may have used heated saltpeter to release oxygen, though this claim remains debated among historians. Whether this detail is accurate or embellished, there’s no question that Drebbel created the first practical submarine.

The 18th century: Military applications emerge

David Bushnell’s Turtle

The first submarine designed specifically for military use was the Turtle, created by American inventor David Bushnell during the Revolutionary War in 1775. This one-person vessel looked nothing like modern submarines. Shaped like two turtle shells joined together (hence the name), it was operated entirely by hand-cranked propellers and foot-operated pumps.

Bushnell’s innovation focused on practical combat capability:

• A hand-cranked drill designed to bore into enemy ship hulls.
• A detachable explosive charge with a time-delay fuse.
• Ballast tanks that could be flooded or pumped out for depth control.
• A vertical propeller for ascending and descending.
• Enough air for about 30 minutes of submersion.

The Turtle attempted to attack HMS Eagle in New York Harbor in 1776, but the mission failed when the drill couldn’t penetrate the ship’s copper-sheathed hull. Despite this unsuccessful combat debut, Bushnell proved that submarines could be designed as weapons platforms, not just experimental curiosities.

The 19th century: Refinement and recognition

Robert Fulton’s Nautilus

By 1800, American engineer Robert Fulton (better known for his steamboat innovations) had built the Nautilus in France. This submarine represented a significant leap in sophistication. Measuring 21 feet long, it featured a collapsible sail for surface travel and a hand-cranked propeller for underwater propulsion. The copper-covered hull was more durable than earlier leather designs, and Fulton’s compressed air system extended dive times considerably.

Fulton successfully demonstrated the Nautilus to Napoleon’s government, remaining submerged for over an hour and successfully destroying a target vessel in trials. However, Napoleon ultimately lost interest, and the British Admiralty also rejected Fulton’s proposals. The military establishment wasn’t ready to embrace submarine warfare, viewing it as ungentlemanly and potentially too effective.

The Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley

The American Civil War produced the first submarine to successfully sink an enemy warship in combat. The H.L. Hunley, named after its financial backer Horace Lawson Hunley, achieved this historic feat on February 17, 1864, when it attacked and sank the USS Housatonic off the coast of Charleston, South Carolina.

The Hunley was hand-powered by a crew of eight men turning a crankshaft connected to a propeller. Its weapon was a spar torpedo, essentially an explosive charge mounted on a long pole extending from the bow. The successful attack came at a terrible cost: the Hunley sank shortly after the engagement, killing all nine crew members. This was actually the submarine’s third sinking, it had already claimed the lives of 13 crew members, including Hunley himself, in earlier accidents.

The wreck was finally located in 1995 and raised in 2000, providing archaeologists with invaluable insights into early submarine design and the dangers faced by these pioneering underwater warriors.

Modern submarines: Power and practicality

John Philip Holland’s breakthrough

Irish engineer John Philip Holland designed the first practical submarine powered by internal combustion engines on the surface and electric motors while submerged. His submarine, simply called Holland VI, was launched in 1897 and purchased by the U.S. Navy in 1900, becoming the USS Holland (SS-1).

Holland’s design philosophy emphasized several key innovations:

• Dual propulsion system (gasoline engine for surface, electric for underwater).
• Dynamic diving using horizontal rudders rather than just ballast adjustment.
• Torpedo tubes as primary weapons instead of attached explosives.
• Streamlined hull shape that improved underwater maneuverability.
• Practical periscope integration for underwater observation.

The success of Holland’s submarines led to orders from the British, Japanese, and Russian navies. His company eventually became the Electric Boat Company, which still builds submarines for the U.S. Navy today. Holland’s fundamental design principles remained standard for submarines through both World Wars and into the mid-20th century.

Nuclear propulsion: The final revolution

The ultimate transformation in submarine technology came in 1954 with the launch of USS Nautilus, the world’s first nuclear-powered submarine. Designed under the direction of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, this vessel could remain submerged almost indefinitely, limited only by crew supplies and maintenance needs rather than battery life or air supply.

Nuclear power eliminated the diesel submarine’s greatest vulnerability: the need to surface or snorkel to recharge batteries. Modern nuclear submarines can circumnavigate the globe without surfacing, remain on station for months, and maintain high speeds underwater that would have been impossible with earlier technology.

So who really invented the submarine?

Attributing the invention of the submarine to a single person oversimplifies a complex technological evolution. If we’re measuring by firsts, the answer depends on our criteria:

• First theoretical design: William Bourne (1578).
• First working submersible: Cornelis Drebbel (1620-1624).
• First military submarine: David Bushnell (1775).
• First submarine to sink an enemy ship: H.L. Hunley (1864).
• First practical modern submarine: John Philip Holland (1897).
• First nuclear submarine: USS Nautilus design team (1954).

Each inventor built upon the knowledge and failures of their predecessors. Drebbel made Bourne’s theory real. Bushnell weaponized the concept. Holland made it practical. Rickover made it truly formidable.